Alienation and Social Alienation Definitions

Alienation is a theoretical concept developed by Karl Marx that describes the isolating, dehumanizing, and disenchanting effects of working within a capitalist system of production. Per Marx, its cause is the economic system itself. Social alienation is a more broad concept used by sociologists to describe the experience of individuals or groups that feel disconnected from the values, norms, practices, and social relations of their community or society for a variety of social structural reasons, including and in addition to the economy. Those experiencing social alienation do not share the common, mainstream values of society, are not well integrated into society, its groups and institutions, and are socially isolated from the mainstream. Marxs Theory of Alienation Karl Marxs theory of alienation was central to his critique of industrial capitalism and the class-stratified social system that both resulted from it and supported it. He wrote directly about it in Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts  and  The German Ideology, though it is a concept that is central to most of his writing.  The way Marx used the term and wrote about the concept shifted as he grew and developed as an intellectual, but the version of the term that is most frequently associated with Marx and taught within sociology is of the alienation of workers within a capitalist system of production. According to Marx, the organization of the capitalist system of production, which features a wealthy class of owners and managers who purchase labor from workers for wages, creates the alienation of the entire working class. This arrangement leads to four distinct ways in which workers are alienated. They are alienated from the product they make because it is designed and directed by others, and because it earns a profit for the capitalist, and not the worker, through the wage-labor agreement.They are alienated from the production work itself, which is entirely directed by someone else, highly specific in nature, repetitive, and creatively unrewarding. Further, it is work that they do only because they need the wage for survival.They are alienated from their true inner self, desires, and the pursuit of happiness by the demands placed on them by the socio-economic structure, and by their conversion into an object by the capitalist mode of production, which views and treats them not as human subjects but as replaceable elements of a system of production.They are alienated from other workers by a system of production which pits them against each other in a competition to sell their labor for the lowest possible value. This form of alienation serves to prevent workers from seeing and understanding their shared experiences and problems—it fosters a false consciousness and prevents the development of a class consciousness. While Marxs observations and theories were based on the early industrial capitalism of the 19th century, his theory of the alienation of workers holds true today. Sociologists who study the conditions of labor under global capitalism find that the conditions that cause alienation and the experience of it have actually intensified and worsened. The Broader Theory of Social Alienation Sociologist Melvin Seeman provided a robust definition of social alienation in a paper published in 1959, titled On the Meaning of Alienation. The five features he attributed to social alienation hold true today in how sociologists study this phenomenon. They are: Powerlessness: When individuals are socially alienated they believe that what happens in their lives is outside of their control and that what they do ultimately does not matter. They believe they are powerless to shape their life course.Meaninglessness: When an individual does not derive meaning from the things in which he or she is engaged, or at least not the same common or normative meaning that others derive from it.Social Isolation: When a person feels that they are not meaningfully connected to their community through shared values, beliefs, and practices, and/or when they do not have meaningful social relationships with other people.Self-Estrangement: When a person experiences social alienation they may deny their own personal interests and desires in order to satisfy demands placed by others and/or by social norms. Causes of Social Alienation In addition to the cause of working and living within the capitalist system as described by Marx, sociologists recognize other causes of alienation. Economic instability and the social upheaval that tends to go with it has been documented to lead to what Durkheim called anomie—a sense of normlessness that fosters social alienation. Moving from one country to another or from one region within a country to a very different region within it can also destabilize a persons norms, practices, and social relations in such a way as to cause social alienation. Sociologists have also documented that demographic changes within a population can cause social isolation for some who find themselves no longer in the majority in terms of race, religion, values, and worldviews, for example. Social alienation also results from the experience of living at the lower rungs of social hierarchies of race and class. Many people of color experience social alienation as a consequence of systemic racism. Poor people in general, but especially those who live in poverty, experience social isolation because they are economically unable to participate in society in a way that is considered normal.

The 12 Steps Of Alcoholics Anonymous - 852 Words

Based on this disclosure and admission, I was able to begin my work. I reinforced what the treatment center began to implement, the 12 Steps of Alcoholics Anonymous. We created a structured schedule of meetings and the 12-step work began. Weekly he came to therapy and we â€Å"sparred† back and forth of his lack of interest and motivation on the program. It became clear to me that I was not making any headway on this type of counseling and my client could be in danger of relapse. I suggested over and over the vital importance of this activity. It was frustrating, because although he recently achieved two years of abstinence, I feared he was only â€Å"Dry.† Without the daily maintenance of a, â€Å"spiritual program.† Consequently, two days ago, my client overdosed and survived, he is currently at the â€Å"University of Pennsylvania,† in intensive care. His father called me asking me, â€Å"Where did we go wrong?† I explained to him; that the treat ment was, â€Å"good but not good enough.† Never the less, I expressed my regrets and empathy to him, reiterating the fact that he did not have a â€Å"structured program with step work.† His father agreed with me; but then asked (what I consider) the deadliest question of all†¦ â€Å"Maybe AA is not for him, isn’t there something else he can do in it’s place?† My heart dropped and my voice became very direct; â€Å"I do not know anything else that works as comprehensively and successfully as AA does.† I told his father that, â€Å"AA does work, if the person works it!†Show MoreRelatedAlcoholics Anonymous: the 12-Step Treatment780 Words   |  4 PagesAlcoholics Anonymous: The 12-Step Treatment Alcoholics Anonymous: The 12-Step Treatment The 12-step program used by Alcoholics Anonymous is a well-known treatment method that’s used for many types of addiction, not just alcohol. 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An Artistic Story of New York City in 1932 Free Essays

November 17, 2012 Essay II, Word Count: 2268 An Artistic Story of New York in 1932 The purpose of this essay is to discuss the ways Stuart Davis uses the elements of art and principals of design in his painting, New York Mural, 1932. In the beginning of this essay, there is a description of Davis’ biological information and what was happening in New York during the years preceding the painting. It will discuss three elements of art to include: line, shape and color. We will write a custom essay sample on An Artistic Story of New York City in 1932 or any similar topic only for you Order Now The principals of design that will be discussed are unity, balance, and variety. It will close with my personal reflection and experience that was gained from the analysis and research of the painting. Davis was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1892 to parents that were artists. His father was a newspaper art director and his mother was a sculptor. His family moved to East Orange, New Jersey when he was nine years old. He attended school in New Jersey and left high school in 1909 before graduating to attend Henri’s School of Art in New York City. He became acquainted and formed friendships with mentors, John Sloan and George Luks. These men were all part of â€Å"The Eight†. These men were all part of the Realist Art Movement and focused on poverty and the realities of urban life for real people. He began exhibiting his art in 1910 and had his first exhibit in New York City. In 1912, he was employed by a left leaning journal that under the direction of Sloan. While he was there, participating in the groundbreaking Armory Show. His work still was in the realist mode until 1916 when he went on his own to become more of an abstract artist. He was drafted and stayed in United States as a cartographer creating maps for the US Army Intelligence Department. Fortunately, that was short-lived and he began using a Cubist style on his work. He made a series with this Cubist style of works based on a tobacco series. He began an eggbeater series while having Edith Halpert of New York’s Downtown Gallery of Art. This series began his journey away from European influenced Cubism to his own development of his own abstractive modernist style without human presence in his works. He went to Paris in 1928 and upon returning in 1929, he became fascinated and intrigued with the industrialism and post war architecture in New York City. His words were quoted by Karen Wilkin, â€Å"On my arrival I New York I was appalled and depressed by its gigantism. Everything in Paris was human size, here everything was inhuman. It was difficult to think either of art or oneself as having any significance whatever in the face of this frenetic commercial engine. † (Wilkin, 127). At this time, the Great Depression he created relatively few works, but he constantly changed scale, medium and method, making easel paintings, ink drawings, murals and lithographs (Wilkin, 127). His art reflected social issues and his works were pictures that tell a larger story. New York Mural was his most ambitious treatment of the city in which he touched upon the issues of prohibition, government corruption and the affairs of Al Smith (Weber, 10). His journals and historical data during these few years in the New York City political scene are confirmation of the journalistic story he told through New York Mural. It was an outrage that many foreign artists were commissioned to do work in the United States. The Museum of Modern Art in New York organized an exhibit of contemporary murals. This show is why Davis created the New York Mural. It stirred much controversy because of the story it told about New York’s economic, social and political climate. Davis wrote in his personal papers, now in collection at Harvard University: Modern art is a reflection of the advanced modern technology. Modern Art in turn has changed to industrial design (Weber, 10). In 1932, Davis painted the piece that is the topic of this essay, New York Mural. He used oil which did not dry quickly and gave him the ability to change and modify colors and lines days later. Oil paint is flexible and it was easy for him to achieve a rich luminosity while having smooth effects with a high level of detail. DeWitte, Larmann, and Shields, 186). His paintings were now made up of modern industry images with free association and with a decorative pattern that created an optical vibration (Weber, 13). The most dominant principle of design used in this piece is variety because of the artist’s use of various elements of art to include: line, shape , color, form and space. Each element has many purposes to hold the views attention. As you look at the picture, these elements are effective in bringing your attention to every detail as you look around the work of art. Variety makes this picture of the skyline diverse and like no other picture of New York City. The use of lines is complimented by the variety of color used in the painting. The oil provides a shiny surface that allows the lines to be hard and well defined. Within each line are many colors hues of color. The solid primary colors give the lines true definition. Many of the colors are complementary which seems to help contract the objects while achieving depth, especially between the buildings. Some areas of the picture have both crossed-hatching and hatching and neutral solid spaces and shapes. This helps create darkness and lightness in the details of many of the objects. Along with solid black and white areas, the hatchings create shadows and make the picture appear three-dimensional. The buildings appear in the background and random objects in the foreground because of the black surrounding the bottom images in the picture. When you are standing back from the picture you know it’s a building facade but cannot see the defined shapes of the building. The cross hatching and neutrals colors help this happen as if you were in the city looking at distant buildings. The colors are all basic colors of the spectrum with the exception of black and white in the foreground and background to create a dramatic sense of depth and value. These hues are in different shades and saturations. For example the yellow in the banana and tigers’ head is close to its highest level of saturation. The yellow building is a lower saturated yellow because it is mustard in color by having brown mixed into the paint. The black used in the background, lines and inside the buildings help show the defined shapes of the objects in the piece. The white achieves many of the same things while this absence of color is used to show brightness and the feeling of daylight where it is in the background. There is an obvious contrast by the black and white that creates the symbolism of night and day. With these neutral colors there is no need for implied lines as your eyes wonder around the picture. The directional lines are used to bring your eyes upward in the painting to the tallest building in the center which could be considered the main focal point. It is almost in the centerline of the piece which helps to achieve symmetry and balance. This building is recognizable as the Empire State Building, the newest and tallest building in New York in 1932. Horizontal Lines bring your eyes up into the skyline while the vertical and diagonal lines create depth and dimensions. The curved lines with both thin and thickness to them help you to notice various symbols that explain the story Davis is trying to tell of that time. The foreground has many shapes utilizing volume and space that take time to identify. These contour shaped images create volume and space in the foreground. While the yellow banana is recognizable, it has a an organic shape that makes you look closely to make sure that is what he is showing the viewer. The green banana is not as recognizable because of its dark hue of green even though it is analogous to yellow. There are mostly geometric shapes in the city’s skyline. The only curved line and shape is in the shape of a funny face with a hat at the top of the purple building to the right where the three orange circles look two eyes and a nose. Symmetry is achieved through a well balanced picture. Both sides are equally filled with positive shapes and vary with and same amount of negative space. There are concentric geometric shapes for the windows in the buildings, this creates contrast between the different buildings heights and widths. It also gives symmetry to each individual building. The six large rectangles behind the gas pump make it recognizable as a gas station with the garage door in front. The use of colors and lines help the entire picture to appear balanced. The principle of design, proportion, is used throughout this piece of art. The tiger’s head and tail are recognizable in a cartoon like image. If you did not have the research and narrative of what was going on in this time period of the artist’s life, you would not understand why it is randomly placed to the right bottom of the closest building in the foreground of the buildings. The entire painting has the cartoon like feel to it. Especially with the exaggerated proportions of the hats, bananas and what looks like a butterfly on the right side boarder. These things are not to scale with the rest of the parts. The scale is in different proportions and it is mostly dramatic between the foreground and the skyline which appears father away. The best example in the foreground is the proportion of the bananas, tire and hat. It would be a very small tire and hat or a very large banana in realistic. Davis uses scale to exaggerate some of the messages that he is trying to tell about the many things that were taking place during this time. Many of these images are defined further through many of Davis’ later paintings that are enlarged and elaborated versions of this original painting. In a genius way, Davis achieves unity through this picture when you view it as a whole. There is a direct message that the whole is greater than the sum of its individual parts (DeWitte, Larmann, and Shields, 121). He splatters various colorful shapes and organic images to tell the story. Upon first glance, the draw to this picture was because the noticeably recognizable skyline of New York City. I love New York City more than any other place that I have ever lived, worked or played. After gazing around it for a few moments, I could see many random objects beautifully tied and linked together through symbols made of shapes, space, lines and many bright, shiny colors. It was puzzling because I did not know specific facts of history. It was obvious to me that each thing placed in the painting was deliberate and told a story. I was very interested to hear why these random objects surrounding the geometric shaped skyline were of significance to the artist at that moment in time. It is very busy, but also balanced achieving unity and balance. After reading about the artist and his other works, I was fascinated by his ability to not only tell a story but to practically expose the negative and positive events and achievements of that time. His ego and boldness was obvious to me when I realized the offending nature of some of the references he was making representing specific people he knew and was around in New York City. I feel as though I have read a book about New York City’s growth and struggles after the crash of the stock market in 1929 through the early 1930’s. I am also grateful, to the authors of books and articles that explain what was happening and researches what the artist meant with different aspects of their pieces of art. I am a new fan of Davis because I love his bright shiny pictures depicting the city I love and am interested in. He loved New York and enjoyed it while noticing some of the growth and change making the city less intimate and large and filled with the potential and realities for corruption. I believe he admired and was impressed with the new buildings and infrastructure in the city while acknowledging that it had to come at a price of greed and a degree of coldness rather than prosperity and warmth. This essay makes me more interested in the stories behind the pieces of art and the artists that created them. The thoughts, history and personal situations are fascinating and give me a different appreciation for New York Mural. I am going to stay mindful and open to enjoy a piece of artwork just for its beauty and the talent that it took to create rather than the book of truth and theoretical information behind it. Works Cited Debra J. DeWitte, Ralph M. Larrman, and M. Kathryn Shields, Gateways to Art, 2012, Tharmes Hudson Weber, Bruce. Stuart Davis’ New York, 1985. Norton Gallery of Art, West Palm Beach Wilkins, Karen. Stuart Davis, 1987. Cross River Press, ltd. Davis, Stuart. New York Mural. 1932. Oil on Canvas. Norton Museum of Art, West Palm Beach. 84 inches x 84 inches, signed and dated Date viewed: November 4, 2012 How to cite An Artistic Story of New York City in 1932, Essay examples

Importance of Relationship Marketing for the Customers Samples

Question: Critically Examine the Interdependent Nature between Service Quality and Rrelationship Marketing in establishing Sustainable Long term Relationship with Customers. Answer: Introduction The relationship marketing is important for the marketing where the benefits are mainly perceived with the relationship marketing for the customers. The creation, enhancing and maintenance of the relationship with the customers. The factors are contributed to the rapid development with relationship marketing, where there is de-intermediation process. The relationship reflects on creating the unique knowledge with reduced perceived risks, minimising the cost of transaction, increasing customer loyalty with improved organisational performance. The attempt is mainly to improve the customer relationships with the purpose of increased customer loyalty, where the loyal customers tend to use more with the will to spend more. The approaches are for the improved customer relationship implementation with increased loyalty of the customer. The study is based on examining the effects with the loyalty to mainly enhance the competitive edge of the hospitality industry. To take advantage of the hug e market potential, the firms also need to focus on the growth of eating culture with increased competitive environment. For generating the sales, the interaction is mainly in between the business and the customers. (Nguyen et al., 2014). The customer oriented factors are set by understanding the needs of the customer and supplying the customers with the services that will be able to fill the void. The approach is based on building retention equity by understanding the relationship from the viewpoint of the customer. The participation in and seeking out relationships will help in standardising the relational benefits, service quality and the customer perceived values based on customer loyalty. Service Quality: Literature Review The service quality is set for the research, where the evaluation of the customer of the provider service is based on the experience and the impressions. Hence, it is important to check on the concepts with grasping the different dimensions with service quality and to form the evaluations. There are services based on holding the service industries that deal with the functional and the technical qualities. The forms are set with reliability, responsibilities, empathy and assurance. The standards are set with the physical reliability, interactive quality and the corporate quality. Here, the physical quality is mainly dealing with the service aspects and the interactive quality that needs to match the interactive nature of services. The two-way flow occurs when the customers and the service provider tends to include the evaluations of: The customer employee interaction that reflects the employee behaviour, attitudes and expertise. The service environment Outcome with the technical quality. With the extent, the clients frequently lack the confidence to assess the outcomes with the process of service delivery and the functional quality. Here, the facts are related to the customers who refer to the restaurant for the meal where the experience the best combination of the service and the product, where their primary purpose has been only eating, with their experience of dining out. It would be a combination of having the meal of the product and receiving the services from the way, staff treat. It includes the physical appearance of the restaurants like the lighting, location of the restaurants, music and the decoration. (Eisingerich et al., 2014). For the better service quality, the focus is also on the services which are received with the level of satisfaction when related to the restaurants. This can easily affect the decisions to have the breakfast, lunch or dinner. The customer considers the value for money, and they can make a choice for the place with dining out only. There are different factors which are accounted for the preference of the family dining restaurant over the other. The pre-defined objectives are unattainable in practices where the best focus is on service potential with the worker's qualification, service process and service result. The service quality is mainly for the overall impression of the relative inferiority and the superiority of the organization. It relates to the perceived service standards that are set about the superior services mainly focusing on offering the high qualification, which is very efficient. (Costanza et al., 2016). With this, the perception results come from the customer expectation with the factual performance. The quality cannot be easily evaluated by the outcomes of the services, but also it is for the better delivery of the services. The quality gaps are set to include gaps which mainly occur in between the management of the consumer perception of service quality along with the tasks that have been related to the delivery of service. The internal perspectives mainly focus on the conformance to the requirements whereas the external is mainly for the customer perception, exception and the satisfaction with attitude. It has been seen, now-a-day that the external perspectives can work on the growing needs of the customer with varied tasks, increased expectation of the customer. (Bowen, 2016). SERVQUAL is one of the best models that is used for determining the better quality as well. This model can combine with the perceptions to mainly achieve through their expectations. It has been used in the industry where the research is indicated with the limitations of SERVQUAL. The reason for the complexity is based on conceptualising the service quality with the check on how the expectations are set with performance. The customer perceptions of the service quality are based on the performance with SERVPERF scale with the forms set on the item loadings. The purpose is mainly on variance with the perceptions minus the expectations for the proper measure to diagnose the shortfalls. The third difficulty is for the behaviour intentions where the affect is mainly related to the customer satisfaction, relationship longevity and profitability. The SERVQUAL dimensions is not found to be significant where the predictors are for the behavioural intentions. In the long term relationships, the relationships are mainly in between the customers and the brand performance which is better as the predictors of the loyal behaviour, which is more than the satisfaction. Relationship Marketing: Literature Review The relationship marketing is set on the construction factors that are based on the other forms of the behavioural perspectives as well. The relational constructs are for trust and satisfaction, conceptualisation and focusing on the evaluation of the customer retention, internal relationship. (Vomberg et al., 2015). The relationship marketing includes the business to the business marketing to the buyers and the customer marketing where the service marketing and the goods marketing is mainly through the information technology and face-to-face contact. There are relationships between the suppliers, customer and the competitors who tend to operate in the market. The service encounter includes the supplier customer dyad with the supplier customer competition to work on the physical distribution network, and the customer set for the loyalty programme. The quality, productivity and the profitability is based on the market relationships, where the market relationships are set with the concern of the economy and society. The mega marketing is mainly with the influence on the public opinion and political decisions, mega-alliances where the European Union sets a new stage for the marketing. There are different principle frameworks for the relationship marketing which includes the information, investments, individuality, interaction, integration, selectivity and the intention. The framework is based on the different needs that the company has to focus on with the proper establishment of the relationship with the customers. (Bowden et al., 2015). The aim is to bring a strong database of the customer-oriented information to offer a customized and individualized service to interact, integrate with the customer. This will help in building and maintain a good relationship with the customers. The producers and customers to deal with the potential for the emotional bonding that includes the economic exchange. The humans are pre-disposed forms which includes the regular customer that receives the core service. The first cover is based on relating to the core product with related forms of the relationship. The economic benefits reflect the discounts, price breaks and the time saving patterns. The social benefits reflect on the employees recognition and the customisation with employees with th e customer and better service provider. The examples are set with the relationship is between the internal customers, and the relationship is also between the internal markets with the business set inside the corporations. RM is depending upon the collaboration with contribution to marketing, where the stress profitability is in service operations that is highly dependent on the collaboration between the parties like the service encounter. The improvement is in the customer perceived quality with the will to increase the customer satisfaction, and the profitability standards. The good internal service quality, satisfied employees and stay of the employees, with good external service quality. The research is based on how the customers build the switching costs with the development of the personal relationships with the service providers. The relational policies are set with the preferential treatment, communication and the adaptation of the needs of the customer for customer retentio n, with reduced complaints and conflicts or improved positioning. Hence, to incorporate the different aspects, one need to check on the relationship marketing, where a strong relationship with the customer helps in customer retention. The customer loyalty is the major factor with the repetitive purchasing behaviour that is referred to as retention. The management of the customer retention could easily benefit the firm with increased profitability that comes with the retention to lead the cost reductions as well as the increased sales. The statement for the management of the good customer retention increase with the expertise of the customer where there are costs that might be relatively reduced. (Kim et al., 2013). The sales are for the growth with the results that include the expenditure of time, and a positive word by the loyal customers. (Chow et al., 2015). The relationship affects the customer loyalty with affected perceptions of relationship investment in retail setting. The i nvestment affects the relationship quality with behavioural loyalty that includes the interpersonal communication with how the customers perceived the providers with relationship investment. The involved customers and the customers are for the services with influencing the relational response behaviours where the satisfaction, loyalty and word-of-mouth. Connection between Service Quality and Relationship Marketing The customer expectation for the service is based on the demands of the recommendations, personal needs, and the experiences. This will help in handling the GAP model along with highlighting all the important requirements which are important for delivering the high-quality service. The identification is mainly of the five gaps that can lead to unsuccessful delivery. The customers need to focus on the comparison of the services where the experience is with the services they tend to expect. The models of SERVQUAL is related to the reliability, responsiveness, competency and the credibility. The measuring of the services is mainly through the subjective and the objective processes that involve the customer satisfaction which is being assessed, with the indirect measures. (Hallikas et al., 2014). The process is based on facilitating the efficient and the effective shopping, purchasing and the delivery to begin and end the transactions depending upon information search, navigation ton the website, order and the customer service interactions. The techniques are based on the quality function deployment with the line of visibility, accessibility and blueprinting. (Goolsby et al., 2015). In comparison to the relationship marketing, it has been seen that the firms need to develop the mutually beneficial and the long-term relationships with the customers. The relationship marketing is based on enabling the customers to focus on the needs and communication in the firm. The relationship marketing is mainly focused on the closed relationship with the customers to enable the needs and the communication of the firm mainly. It can help the customers to be satisfied with the relationship concept, or marketing to date. The relationship market dimensions are based on the advantage where the company focuses on the fierce business environment, with long-term relationships with the customers that become critical to gaining the competitive advantage. (Van Riel et al., 2013). The standards are based on the assessment of the relationship marketing on the customer, with the study which has been determined below: The trust is important which depends on the agreement with the undertaking of the parties like the suppliers, providers and the middles which could lead to abandoning the relationship. With this, the argument is that the trust is mainly for feeling confident that the partners will be able to keep the promise with commitment. It will also include the arguments with the arguments set with multi-purpose, uncertainty and the positive result of an action. The relationship marketing needs trust which is an important part for not breaking the promise. (Lehtonen, 2014). The commitment is based on the on-going relationships, where the parties try to maintain its best with the committed person who tries to put in the maximum effort to ensure that the relationship. The examination is based on the general trait, adaptation with measuring of the organizational commitment. The communication helps in the ability to provide the information that is completely reliable with proper access to the timeline. Here, the focus is on the standards with an interactive conversation that is set at the time of processing the buying selling method that occurs mainly in between the customers and the service providers. The communication is important where the process could be defined as the constant sharing of the information with the customers for the services with the change in the system delivery and solving problem. The stages are set to determine and provide the information for the customers, where the awareness of the firms is to handle the responsibility to develop the customer interest in promoting services or goods. The customer satisfaction is related to the research where the degree of meeting or exceeding the needs of the customer is mainly through the receiving of the different service products. (Pinho et al., 2014). The quality of the product or the service is based on handling and not meeting any requirements of the customer. It relies on working with the products and services where there is a need to meet the customer expectations, where the customers also feel satisfied with the services or the good providers. (Gronroos et al., 2014). Example Considering the example of the airline based industry, there have been perspectives related to the service standards and the marketing in the airlines that builds on the survival and the competitiveness. The standards are based on the high service quality which can make the company gain and work on the competitive advantage with higher qualification to the services for the customers. It is important for the airlines to show the difference in the competitive market. The company can work on different standards with unique characteristics that play a major role in the driving of the passenger satisfaction, loyalty and the choice of the airlines. (Graca et al. , 2015). The use of the SERVQUAL is necessary to evaluate the service quality which is based on measuring the different aspects with the tangible and the intangible attributes that are involved in the airline service. The in-flight means, with frequent flyer programs, seat space, and the legroom are important with the emphasis on the airline service. The SERVQUAL does not mainly address these aspects but is relevant to derive the nature of the airline service quality with proper evaluation of the effects of derived dimensions. The concern is about the intangible approach where the company can only focus on the passengers who are satisfied or dissatisfied with the services from the responses. The gap occurs when there are factors related to the passengers, airline managers, and the government concerns. Hence, for this, the focus is mainly on the convenient check-in and the connections, taking off on time, with cleaning the aircraft and setting the complaint mechanism as well. There are some ar eas where the managers need to handle the gaps with the consumer's expectation mainly differing from the perception of management of the consumer expectations. This includes the passenger concerns that is primarily about the onboard comfort and the delay that is informed. The relationship marketing for the airline industry has a major adoption of the marketing concepts where here is an execution of different forms to handle the globalization and competitive environment. (Wien et al., 2014). There are different forms which are for retaining the customers and making them loyal with increased market share and brand awareness. The value is to offer the available and the convenient scheduling of time, punctuality and safety that needs to be served. The people express the example which is unable to be on time for meeting any basic forms of the requirements. Hence, the company should also be able to satisfy the customer and retain the customer loyalty with building a good relationship and matching the needs of the specific segments. The forms are for the building of customer relationship and not primarily the customer database is the first thing that the airline should be focusing on. Here, the major focus is to build the client relationship but not the customer database which is important for the airlines to be implemented. The airlines should have the better capability to market with the establishment of the orientation or the information mainly about the customers. The database and the IT audits are set to treat the customers properly with the focus on using the information with improving the services. The airlines need to gather the information with the profitability of the customers that will be able to help in providing a better service with the improvement in the relationship as well. The communication is important for the right segments which will be able to maintain the relationship of the system structure as well. (Karna, 2014). The company focus on the important drivers of the behavior where the specifications are set with the micro-segments. For the long term customer relationship, there is a need to lower the cost of the company with increased profita bility in the market. With the FFP (Frequent Flyer Program), the relationship of the marketing strategies is set depending upon the development of customer loyalty. The standards are set with the American Airlines which could easily be implemented by providing the package that has been designed mainly for the loyal passenger for the purchasing and the rewarding based on the distance that is flown on the airlines. The customers need to work on the specific segments to collect information of the valuable customer through the internet. Hence, for this, the website strategy is for the airlines with integrated and customized services. Conclusion The report is mainly about the investigation of the characteristics of the service quality and the relationship marketing. This helps in achieving the best quality with maintaining a long term relationship. (Vendrell et al., 2017). It will help in improving the competitive advantage and enhancing the market share where the airlines are also able to provide a better service to meet the demands of the passenger with the establishment of the long term relationship with profit and the competitiveness. (Pinho et al., 2014). The airline services include the flight meals, entertainment, legroom through which the customer is always satisfied to receive a higher quality at an affordable price. On the other hand, the relationship marketing is also important with the defined segmentation to satisfy the building of the long term relationship with the profitability of the customers. Reference Nguyen, H., Groth, M., Walsh, G. and Hennig?Thurau, T., 2014. The impact of service scripts on customer citizenship behavior and the moderating role of employee customer orientation.Psychology Marketing,31(12), pp.1096-1109. Scheer, L.K., Miao, C.F. and Palmatier, R.W., 2015. Dependence and interdependence in marketing relationships: meta-analytic insights.Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,43(6), pp.694-712. Eisingerich, A.B., Auh, S. and Merlo, O., 2014. Acta non verba? The role of customer participation and word of mouth in the relationship between service firms customer satisfaction and sales performance.Journal of Service Research,17(1), pp.40-53. Costanza, R., dArge, R., De Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., Oneill, R.V., Paruelo, J. and Raskin, R.G., 2016. The Value of the Worlds Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital (1997).The Globalization and Environment Reader, p.117. Bowen, D.E., 2016. The changing role of employees in service theory and practice: An interdisciplinary view.Human Resource Management Review,26(1), pp.4-13. Bilgihan, A. and Bujisic, M., 2015. The effect of website features in online relationship marketing: A case of online hotel booking.Electronic Commerce Research and Applications,14(4), pp.222-232. Vomberg, A., Homburg, C. and Bornemann, T., 2015. Talented people and strong brands: The contribution of human capital and brand equity to firm value.Strategic Management Journal,36(13), pp.2122-2131. Kim, S.H., Holland, S. and Han, H.S., 2013. A structural model for examining how destination image, perceived value, and service quality affect destination loyalty: A case study of Orlando.International Journal of Tourism Research,15(4), pp.313-328. Bowden, J.L., Gabbott, M. and Naumann, K., 2015. Service relationships and the customer disengagementengagement conundrum.Journal of Marketing Management,31(7-8), pp.774-806. Chow, C.W., Lai, J.Y. and Loi, R., 2015. Motivation of travel agents' customer service behavior and organizational citizenship behavior: The role of leader-member exchange and internal marketing orientation.Tourism Management,48, pp.362-369. Hallikas, J., Immonen, M., Pynnnen, M. and Mikkonen, K., 2014. Service purchasing and value creation: Towards systemic purchases.International Journal of Production Economics,147, pp.53-61. Goolsby, J.R. and Singh, J., 2015. Service quality: an agenda for future research. InProceedings of the 1989 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual Conference(pp. 497-501). Springer International Publishing. van Riel, A.C., Calabretta, G., Driessen, P.H., Hillebrand, B., Humphreys, A., Krafft, M. and Beckers, S.F., 2013. Consumer perceptions of service constellations: implications for service innovation.Journal of Service Management,24(3), pp.314-329. Lehtonen, T., 2014. Attributes and success factors of partnering relationsa theoretical framework for facility services.Nordic journal of surveying and real estate research,2. Pinho, N., Beiro, G., Patrcio, L. and P. Fisk, R., 2014. Understanding value co-creation in complex services with many actors.Journal of Service Management,25(4), pp.470-493. Vendrell-Herrero, F., Bustinza, O.F., Parry, G. and Georgantzis, N., 2017. Servitization, digitization and supply chain interdependency.Industrial Marketing Management,60, pp.69-81. Grnroos, C. and Gummerus, J., 2014. The service revolution and its marketing implications: service logic vs service-dominant logic.Managing service quality,24(3), pp.206-229. Krn, S., 2014. Analysing customer satisfaction and quality in constructionthe case of public and private customers.Nordic journal of surveying and real estate research,2. Graca, S.S., Barry, J.M. and Doney, P.M., 2015. Performance outcomes of behavioral attributes in buyer-supplier relationships.Journal of Business Industrial Marketing,30(7), pp.805-816. Wien, A.H. and Olsen, S.O., 2014. Understanding the relationship between individualism and word of mouth: A self?enhancement explanation.Psychology Marketing,31(6), pp.416-425.

Nuclear Arms Race free essay sample

Structure Objectives Introduction Background to the Nuclear Arms Race 9. 2. 1 9. 2. 2 9. 2. 3 The Beginning : Birth of the Nuclear Arms Race The Manhatten Project Rationale for the Arms Race in the Post War Period The Nuclear Arms Race : How it is different from all the Previous Arms Races in History 9. 3. 1 9. 3. 2. 9. 3. 3. The Trinity Test Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings New York Times and the Trinity Test Different Phases of the Nuclear Arms Race in the Post-War Period 9. 4. 1 9. 4. 2 9. 4. 3 9. 4. 4 9. 4. 5 9. 4. 6 9. 4. 7 9. 4. 8 Fear of the Soviets and Communism 945 to 1953 : Period of US Monopoly 1957 to 1968 : Period of Missile Crisis and the ICBM Race 1968 to late 1970s : Period of MIRV and ICBM Race 1981 : Reagans Strategic Modernization Plan 1983 : Militarization of Space-Reagans Star War Programme 1984-1991 : Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev Era and the last days of collapsing Soviet Union. 1991 to 1997 : Nuclear Arms Race after the Collapse of Soviet Union Nuclear Arm s Race in the Third World and South Asia 9. 5. 1 9. 5. 2 95. 3 9. 5. 4 Acquisition of Nuclear Capability by China and start of Arms Race in South Asia India, Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race Domino Theory in South Asia General Complexion of Arms Race in South Asia Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 9. We will write a custom essay sample on Nuclear Arms Race or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 0 OBJECTIVES This unit deals with Arms Race and the Nuclear Threat in the present day world. After studying this unit, you will be in a position to: understand the background to the nuclear arms race; explain how the nuclear arms race is different from all the previous arms races; discuss the different phases of the nuclear arms race in the post-war period; and emarnine the nuclear arms race in the Third World and especially in South Asia. . 1 INTRODUCTION This unit on Arms Race and Nuclear Threat is part of Block 3 which deals with what is called the Cold War Period; i. e. , after the Second World War and the emergence of what is termed as Superpower Dominance. In Unit World War 11: Causes and Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers) you have read about how the USA and the USSR emerged as Superpowers in international politics after the end of the Second World War. In Unit 7 : Cold War: Meaning, Patterns and Dimensions, you have learnt how the collapse of Germany and its allies in 1945 led to the emergence of what has been termed as Cold War between the-two main powers of the post-1945 international order * i. e. USA and USSR. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) which was dealt with in Unit 8 of this block was a consequence of the cold war power bloc politics. One thing common to the post-1945 international order as well as the pre-1945 world was the arms race. When studying about World War I and 11, you would have surely read about the arms race which was both quantitative and qualitative in character. It would also have been noticed that the arms race in its qualitative dimension in both the world wars was itself one of the greatest causes of the two wars. From the invention of dynamite by Sir Alfred Nobel of the Novel Industries in the First World War period, to the invention of rockets by Germany in the Second World War, it is the search for the ultimate weapon which could win all wars that constituted the greatest push for the arms race. In this madness scientists, nations, people, soldiers, politicians all fell prey and ended up only killing greater and greater number of civilians. In the present unit, we will concentrate on the arms race in the post-1945 international order. As has been stated before, this quest for a qualitatively more destructive weapon was the greatest motivating factor in bringing the world a step closer to war, be it the First or the Second World War. The key difference in the arms race before 1945 (i. e. in the interwar period) and after 1945 was the nuclear dimension. Prior to 1945, all the arms races in human history never confronted what is now popularly known as the Nuclear Threat. After 1945, the arms race that humanity got engaged in became the greatest living threat to life itself as known on this planet. The difference lies in one single qualitative step in the arms race, and that step was the creation of the Atomic or Nuclear bomb in 1945. Thus, from 1945 the arms race we discuss in this Unit, remained no longer conventional but acquired a nuclear character and from then till today, man is engaged in an arms race that puts both parties who engage in it, under a perpetual Nuclear Threat. 9. B ACKGROUNDTOTHENUCLEARARMSRACE 9. 2. 1 The Beginning : Birth of the Nuclear Arms Race The nuclear arms race between the superpowers began initially in the pre-second world war period between the Germans and the Allied Powers. It was in the context of this conflict prior to the Second World War that in 1938, at the Kaiser William Institute in Germany, Otto Hann and Dr. Fritz Steersman first split the atom. Lise Meitner and Otto Hann later declared this successful splitti ng of the atom amounting to a nuclear fission. It was a matter of coincidence that at this juncture in history, the greatest minds working on the atomic problem were Jews and that too, German. Hitlers rapid anti-Semitism during the period sent most of these great minds in Germany rushing to the USA where they were welcomed. These fleeing scientists informed the American military who were closely monitoring events in Europe. There was widespread apprehension that Germany might be the first to produce the nuclear bomb as the knowledge of splitting the atom was already available to it. Albert Einstein too was one of the refugees and he knew fully the significance of this discovery, for it was he who first unlocked the secret power of the atom to the modern world. He warned the President of the United States about it. 9. 2. 2 The Manhatten Project T he Americans under President Roosevelt were fully aware of the international implications and so began the race to build the bomb first. Roosevelt commissioned what was the top secret Man Hatten Project, the biggest scientific effort ever made costing 2 billion dollars under Maj. Gen. Leslie Groves to construct the atomic bomb in a record time. Robert Oppenheimer, Enrico Fermi, Herbert York, Edward Teller, Hans Beth and a host of other scientific luminaries were involved in the production of the first three nuclear bombs. The interesting aspect of this bomb construction was that though the initial enemy was Germany, slowly the real enemy for whom the bomb was constructed turned out to be the Soviet Union. In fact, Gen. Leslie Groves stated that he had no illusions that Soviets were the real enemy. -This fact is critical to an understanding of the post 1945 world. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat 1 Cold War Period 9. 2. 3 Rationale for the Arms Race in the Post War Period Germany, the first nation with whom the US engaged in the N-Arms race surrendered in May 1945 and all its nuclear facilities were destroyed, thus ending the first phase of an incipient nuclear arms race. Despite this the arms race had to continue once the weapons had been built. A new enemy across the horizon was discovered Communist Soviet Union. The fear of communism was ideologically fueling the furious pace of the A-Bomb construction. In that sense the emerging U. S. ilitary-industrial complex was not wrong. Communist USSR was definitely the biggest power confronting USA and its western allies once Germany collapsed. The world was definitely getting divided into two camps, the capitalist and the socialist and Europe including Germany was its first victims. The Allies could not do anything about it. Something had to be found, a new ultimate weapon which could stop and possibly destroy the march of communism. That something designed initially for fascist Germany and used for experimentation in Japan was to be probably used later against the Socialist Soviet union. This was the underlying ideological war cry in the American establishment and the subtle reason for continuing the arms race into the post-Second World War world era. The discovery of the split atom gave confidence to the United States that it could fight the cold war or iron-curtain that Winston Churchill said had descended over Europe. It was an indication that the new war after 1945 would be fought against the USSR. Check Your Progress 1 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) C heck your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. 1) Examine the background to the nuclear arms race. 2) What are the rationale for the arms race in the post-war period? s 9. 3 THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE : HOW IT IS DIFFERENT FROM ALL PREVIOUS ARMS RACES IN HISTORY 9. 3. 1 The Ikinity Test Of the three bombs constructed, the first was tested on July 16, 1945 at Alamagordo, New Mexico. It is known as the Trinity Test. The successful Trinity Test heralded the birth of the Nuclear-Bomb in human history and the dawn of the nuclear age. Neils Bohr, the famous Danish Physicist, prophetically observed the insetting arms race and its qualitative difference. In a letter to Resident Roosevelt on 3 July 1944 he mentioned that a weapon of unparalleled power was being created which would completely change all future conditions of warfare. Some scientists anticipating the arms race between the US and the USSR urged the American Government to share the nuclear secrets with Soviet Union and thus prevent an arms race. However, it is obvious that the scientists were too naive of the game of politics as well as the intensity of international politics. Such advice was never heard, and the race was continued in the hope of victory. To the military desperately looking for a way to deal with the Germans, the Japanese qnd finally the Soviets, the Trinity Test held out hope that they could win. 9. 3. 2 Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings Two more historical events, however, finally sealed the destiny of mankind. They were the dropping of the two remaining untested nuclear devices, i. e. , the 5 ton uranium bomb on Hiroshima on August 6 and on Nagasaki on August 8, 1945. Over 250,000 people died in both the cities and the living corpses who survived bled incessantly and were blackened with their skins hanging in shreds, their hair scorched to the roots. Most were totally naked, their clothes burnt from their bodies. George Bernard Shaw observed in Man and Superman about the art of killing that man, out does nature herself when he goes out to slay, he carries a marvel of mechanism that lets loose at the touch of his finger all the hidden molecular energies and leaves the javelin, the arrow and blow pipe of his fathers far behind. Hiroshima and Nagasaki exemplified that. . 3. 3 New York Times and the Ikinity Test It would be easier to comprehend the qualitative significance of nuclear arms race if we take note of two observations made at the time of the Trinity Test. The New York Times reporter who witnessed the test observed a light not of this world, the light of many suns in one. It was a surprise such as the world had never seen, a great green su per can climbing in a fraction of a second to a height of more than 8,000 ft, rising even higher until it touched the clouds, lighting earth and sky all round with a dazzling {uminosity. Up it went, a great ball ,of fire about a mile in diameter, changing colours, as it kept shooting upward, from deep purple to orange, expanding, growing bigger, rising as it was expanding, an elemental force freed from its bonds after being chained for billions of years. For a fleeting instant the colour was unearthly green, such as one only sees in the corona of the sun during a total eclipse. It was as though one had been privileged to witness the birth of the world to be present at the moment of creation when the Lord said: Let There Be Light. Robert Oppenheimer perhaps summarized in one line the destiny of modern mans predicament vis-a-vis his own creation, when he quoted the Gita to exclaim I have become death, destroyer of worlds. The roar created by the explosion at Alamagordo could be heard 50 miles afar and the pillar of fire that the New York Times reporter talked about rose 6 miles into the sky. These observations of the Trinity Test and the dropping of the bomb at Hiroshima and Nagasaki sum up why the arms race mankind got caught in after 1945 is totally different in its complexion from all the previous arms races in human history. The sad part, however, for any idealist scholar of international relations is that despite these evidences of destruction, the arms race continued with greater vigour and vengeance. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period Check Your Progress 2 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit. 1) What is the Trinity Test? 9. 4 DIFFERENT PHASES OF THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE IN THE POST-WAR PERIOD 9. 4. 1 Fear of the Soviets and Communism It was the Trinity Test on July 16, 1945 that truly sparked off the nuclear arms race between the US and the Soviet Union. Despite the horror of Hiroshima and Nagasaki the race never stopped. The second fact that fuelled the nuclear arms race was the Soviet Communist enemy. This was, in fact, testified to by Gen. Leslie Groves who said he had no illusions as to whom the bomb was really being built for, i. e. , the Soviets. The ideological, political and military threat to capitalism by rising communism had to be dealt with. The discovery of the nuclear bomb was truly the biggest boost to the arms race. United Kingdom followed US-Soviet acquisition of the bomb in 1952, France in 1960 and China in 1964. The nuclear arms race passed through the following phases, they cannot be clearly distinguished from each other. 9. 4. 2 1945 to 1953: Period of US Monopoly During this period, the United States first enjoyed a total monopoly until 1953 and then, nuclear superiority. In this phase, the US territory was regarded as a sanctuary because the Soviets did not have any reciprocal delivery capability to reach the American targets from USSR. The United States, on the other hand, could attack the Soviet targets from American bases in Western Europe. 9. 4. 3 1957 to 1968 : Period of Missile Crisis and the ICBM Race T he monopoly enjoyed the US during the first phase was broken when the Soviets successfully tested the ICBM in 1957 creating what has been called the Missile Crisis in America. The advent of ICBMs shifted the focus of the nuclear arms race to strategic weapons; i. e. Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), Sea Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) and strategic or inter-continental bombers which provided the strategic tripod. In 1967, USSR tested what is called a Fractional Orbital Bombardment System. This accelerated the qualitative dimension of the nuclear arms race further into space. 9. 4. 4 1968 to Late 1970s : Period of MIRV and ICBM Race T he third phase in the nuclear arms race began when the American delivery technology took a gigantic leap by introducitfg what is called the Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV) capability in their ICBMs in 1968. This meant that now one single l CBM could carry many small nuclear warhead fitted missiles which on reentering Soviet airspace would go in different directions hitting many targets. MIRV marked a tremendous exponential upgradation of the arms race. This sent shivers down the Soviets who, however, mastered the technology by 1974. During this phase, the Soviets deployed two other weapon systems. First, the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) system in 1968 and second, the first Anti-Satellite (ASAT) missile and warhead, thus ensuring that the arms race went on. Check Your Progress 3 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. 1) Briefly examine the period of US Monopoly in the Arms Race. . 2) Describe the efforts made by the erstwhile Soviet Union to break the US Monopoly in armaments. 9. 4. 5 1981 : Regans Strategic Modernization Plan The next major technological tussle took place between the two Superpowers over the MX-Missile. On October 2, 1981 President Regan announced a strategic modernization plan at an estimated cost of $ 160 billion. The weapons systems planned included : (i) Missile Experimental or MX missle : 100 of these were to be built; (ii) B-IB Bombers : 100 of them to be built; (iii) STEALTH Bombers that are radar resistant by 1990s; (iv) TRIDENT-I1 D-5 missiles-one per year between 1983 and 1987; (v) Command Control and Intelligence system (C,I) to be modernized; (vi) NAVSTAR Satellite global positioning system; (vii) Encapsulated dormant missiles; (viii) TERCOM for precision guided cruise missile; an advanced communication system; (ix) Global Positioning System (GPS) for guidance of the ICBMs during the boost phase; (x) Route encrypted comunications to missiles or launchers; (xi) slackwire buoys radio reception by submarines; (xii) Fuel-Cell propulsion. 9. 4. 6 1983: Militarization of Space-Reagans Star Wars Programme The militarization of space began from 1958 and since then, over 2219 satellites-military and civilian have been launched by the superpowers and other nations, and 75% of the satellites launched have been for surveillance and military use, thus clearly violating the Space Treaty of 1967. On March 23, 1983 President Reagan announced the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) popularly called Star Wars Programme costing 1 trillion dollars to raise the militarization of space to a qunlitatively rlcr; high. The aim being to build both a ground based and space based Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) to protect US territory against Soviet strategic missile attacks. Theoretically, the SDI programme, was supposed to be an alternative to the Mutual Assured Destruction or MAD dogma as it would provide Mutual Assured Survival. It was thought the render nuclear weapons obsolete be relying on three new types of nonnuclear weapon systems. These were : Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period i) Kinetic Energy Weapons ii) Directed Energy Weapons and iii) Microwave Energy Weapons All these weapons were based on various types of chemicals, electromaphetic forces. and x-rays and lasers. The SDI programme did not take off for many reasons. They being: a) It was too expensive. b) It was not a sure technological venture, in the sense that it was far too complicated and thus not feasible. C) T he Soviets could easily render SDI ineffective by building a counter SDI. ) Reagan never consulted his European NATO allies and infact, surprised them by his announcement thus creating opposition to the programme in Europe. e) Reagan by signing the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) completely ended the political rationale of the SDI programme. f) In the USA itself, in the Congress and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, both the Republicans and the Democrats were of the opinion that they would not allow SDI to pass at any cost and thus, damage the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty of 1972. Thus, they rejected SDI as otherwise it would have meant that the ABM Treaty alongwith SALT I and I1 would be nullified. Same would be the fate of START negotiations thus destroying the whole edifice of arms control and the start of an unbridled nuclear arms race. Added to this, many important scientists in USA, important people like James Schlesinger, former Secretary of Defense Mc-George Bundy, cold warriors likc George F. Kennan and Robert McNamara, former Secretary of Defence Harold Brown and a host of other people opposed the very fundamental logic of SDI that it would make the world safe of USA by removing the stability provided by the MAD capability of both the superpowers. Later on, the sweeping changes initiated by Michael Gorbachev within the USSR vide Glassnost and Perestroika and allowing democracy in Eastern Europe ended the whole logic of SDI. Check Your Progress 4 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. 1) What were the main cornponcnts of US President Ronald Reagans Strategic Modernisation Plan? \ 2 ) What were the reasons for the criticism of Regans S DI P r o g r a ~ r i ; ~ , ~ ! 9. 4. 7 1984-1991: Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev Era and the Last Days of Collapsing Soviet Union By January 1985, due to the damage already done by SDI of Ronald Reagan, massive rearmament programmes were on the both the sides, and the future direction of the arms race was dependent upon the two superpowers. The arms race was on at three levels of nuclear weaponary, i. e. ,-space weapons, intercontinental weapons, and intermediate nuclear weapons. The US position on militarization of space through SDI really put the arms negotiation in difficult state. The Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko said, If there were no advancement on the issues of outer space, it would be superfluous to discuss the possibility of reducing strategic armaments. The US in 1984 had a massive programme for rearmament of many types of weapon systems. The rearmament programme of USA consisted of more Sea Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs); about 800 more nuclear warheads to be fitted on sea and air delivery systems; MX missile testing; Midgetsman Missiles; the eighth Trident submarine fitted with more accurate SLBMs and 100 B -lB bombs. On the Soviet side, in 1984-1985 the rearmament meant rearmament of all Soviet SS-17s SS-18s and SS-19s into the MIRV ed mode, a new TYPHOON class submarine and testing a new type of more accurate SLBM. There was a reported attempt to make 40% of Soviet ICBMs on the movable mode instead of the existing 25% and all 243 Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles (IRBMs) were to be deployed. All in all, 1984-85 was a period of massive rearmament of all weapon systems. In 1985-86, the picture as regards arms race was the same. There was no restraint. The only hope that some kind of arms control was possible was generated by the November 1985 summit meeting at Geneva between President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev where both in a joint statement stated that, The sides . have agreed that a nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought. They also agreed to hold summit level meetings in 1987 and 1988. These words were an indirect admission by USA that the SDI was not workable. In other words, it recognised as unfeasible that the MAD doctrine could be replaced and a limited nuclear war waged by militarizing space was recognised as unfeasible. Apart from this, there was little progress in the talks on arms reduction in Europe. As regards the nuclear arms race in 1986-87, the situation was still more or less the same except that there was a little movement towards arms control. The US put its first MX ICBM and B-1B bomber on operational position and on a 24 hour alert. Deployment of Pershing I1 missiles and SS-20s continued in Europe. However, certain positive developments took place which definitely halted the arms race in the long run. First, the 27th CPSU Congress in February 1986 decided on Perestroika (Restructuring of Economy), Glasnost ( Openness and Democratization) and reversal of military confi. ontation in Europe and opening up of Eastern Europe. Second, the Raykiajavik summit on 11 and 12 October 1986 declared that a nuclear war could never be won and should never be fougkt. Third, within the USA a tattered Reagans economy and the Senates opposition to SDI hit US arms race plans. Fourth, there were differences between USA and its NATO Allies who were never consulted on SDI. Thus, though the arms race went on in 1986-87 it was definitely going to end soon. As regards 1987-88, on December 8, 1987 the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) was signed for the elimination of all intermediate and short range missiles. The agreement required the USA and USSR remove 2695 intermediate range GLBMs with a range of 1 000 to 5500 kms. It also envisaged the removal of GLBMs short range i. e. , 5 00 to 1000 kms. USSR agreed to remove 1836 missiles while USA removed 867 missiles. The INF Treaty saved the ABM Treaty from being neutralised by SDI, because with this treaty the rationale for SDI became even weaker and Reagan found it very difficult to push the matter in the Congress as well as with US public. In this sense, it saved the world from another dangerous dimension of arms race i. e. , the space opening UP. 1988-89 was another significant year as it too had something to show in terms of peace. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period 1988-83 can be characterised as the year of settlement of disputes in Afghanistan, Namibia, Iran-Iraq War, Israel-PLO and South Africa. It was also the year Gorbachev announced at the UN, unilateral reduction of Soviet troops and armaments in Europe amounting to 40% reduction of Soviet tank divisions and 50% of Soviet tanks deployed in GDR, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. This was a very significant political and military move as regards the continuation of conventional and nuclear arms race in Europe. 1989-90 can be characterized as the Year of Europe. By the end of 1989, almost all Soviet Allies in Eastern Europe and Central Europe except Rumania and Albania were free. In August 1989, the first non-communist government got elected in Poland. By November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall had crashed. Elections also took place in Hungary, GDR and Czechoslovakia. On 29 December 1989 Vaclav Havel took over as the President of Czechoslovakia. At the Malta summit in December 1989, President Gorbachev showed readiness to regulate further and move ahead on the START process. Gewge Bush, the US President, hesitated a bit though he committed US towards a Chemical Weapon Ban and the required agreement in the future. 1990 was a year full of events. While Europe and the two superpowers were moving towards peace the Gulf was in flames with the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq on August 2, 1990. Apart from this, in 1990, the WARSAW Pact was dissolved on 3rd March. On June 1, 1990, US and USSR signed a treaty on the destruction of and non-production of chemical weapons and on multilateral measures to ban chemical weapons. It was decided that by 31 December, 1992, all chemical weapons in the world would be destroyed and only 5000 tons of agents would be kept. Then, the membership of the Missiles Technology Control Regime (MTCR) expanded. On November 20, 1990 there was the Treaty and a Joint Declaration of Conventional Armed Forces (CFF) forever reducing the nuclear threat in Europe. Check Your Progress 5 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. 1) What were the salient features of the Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev era? 9. 4. 1991 to 97 : Nuclear Arms Race after the Collapse of Soviet Union 1991-92 was a historic year in the sense that due to the collapse of USSR, the enemy that fueled the arms race for US militarists broke up into 14 new states. Yugoslav ia also broke up and in one stroke the enemy in so far as the US was concerned was gone and so, the whole political ideological basis of the nuclear arms race. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2nd August 1990 led to the launch of US and Allied coalition attack under UN auspices against Iraq on 17th January, 1991. It ended on 28th February, 1991 with the complete defeat of Iraq. Arms trade as a result showed a down-ward trend. In 1991 the total value of global arms trade touched $ 22, 114 million. This . was 20% less than in 1990. I In 1992-93 USA, the Russian Federation, France, and Britain all agreed to halt the nuclear arms race totally except vis-a-vis R D. At the regional level, there was further concretization of Europes complete demilitarization by the signing of the Helsinkl Document by all Eastern and West European countries. Added to this, there was the world summit on environment at Rio and UN Secretary Generals declaration of the Agenda for Peace. The peripd between 1993 and 1997 saw two other significant events taking place i n~the nuclear arms race. First, in 1995 the NPT review Conference took place for an indefinite extension of the treaty and on 24th September 1996, the Comprehensive Test Ban Traty (CTBT) was up for signature. US and the other nuclear weapons states and 60 other non-nuclear states signed the CTBT. India did not sign either the NPT or CTBT. The government argued that it did so to keep the nuclear weapons option open. This position taken by India brings us to the question of nuclear arms race in the Third World, dealt with in the following section. .; Check Your Progress 6 L Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer. ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit. I) Examine the nuclear arms race after the collapse of the USSR. 9. 5 NUCLEAR ARMS RACE IN THE THIRD WORLD AND SOUTH ASIA r r T he nuclear arms race that went on in the First World throughout the Cold War definitely had its impact on the Third World. The quest of the German Bomb fueled the American Manhattan Project initially, and as the Second World War came to a close it was the Soviet ideological and military power manifest in the occupation of Eastern Europe that really put Americans firmly on the track of nuclear bomb making. However, at that time the Allies needed the Soviet Communists to destroy fascist Germany, Italy and Japan. Stalins intelligence agencies were well aware of the secret American nuclear programme and at Postdam, his suspicions were confirmed when President Roosevelt informed Stalin of a secret weapon. This knowledge fueled the Soviet desire to build the bomb at a feverish pace to counter the threat form c aptalist west. The bombing on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, though not really necessary were also a veiled threat to Soviets of the American resolve. These events in a way led to the nuclear arms race. After 1949, when Communist China emerged under Mao, it is believed that the Chinese through Soviet help (prior to Sino-Soviet split) too got the nuclear capability and tested in 1964. China was considered a Third World state and one can see how the ideological and political nature of nations deeply affected their decision to develop a nuclear capability. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period 9. 5. 1 Acquisition of Nuclear Capability by China and start of Arms Race in South Asia Thus, the acquisition of nuclear capability of China in 1964 signalled the beginning of a nuclear arms race in South Asia. The Indo-Pak conflict was not actually the factor responsible for Indias quest for nuclear capability as many scholars claims, though it came in much later. The Kashmir conflict and partition and the three subsequent wars in 1948, 1965 and 1971 did fuel the conventional arms race. 9. 5. 2 India, Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race The nuclew arms race in South Asia however was not of Indias making. It rather came after the massive defeat India suffered at Chinese hands in 1962, which hit our whole defense and foreign policy. This followed by the news of Chinese exploding the nuclear device in 1964 shook the Indian political and military establishment and they decided to develop Indias nuclear capability. The decision was also influenced, perhaps, by the Chinese collusion with Pakistan in the 1950s prior to the 1962 war. It brought home to the Indian strategists the real possibility of Chinese and Pakistanis joining hands against India. After 1962, there was thus no looking back and the nuclear arms race reached South Asia. When India conducted the Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) in 1974, the Pakistanis too decided to go for a nuclear programme. The onset of the Second Cold War with the Soviet invasion in Afghanistan 1979 put Pakistan on the high priority zone of US in its fight against communism. It signalled deeper military cooperation and aid to Pakistan and some say, the beginning of some help even in fledgling Pakistan nuclear weapons programme. As of now, the South Asian region, is definitely a zone of nuclear competition with India consciously keeping its option open and not exercising its capability. This is expressed in its refusal to sign both the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty in the 1995 Review Conference ahd the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) on 24th September, 1996. . 5. 3 Domino Theory in South Asia The South Asian case amply demonstrates the Domino Theory which fuels nuclear arms race or any arms race. First, it was the German threat to Europe which made the US go for the bomb. Then, the Soviet threat made US go in for the bomb again. The bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki led Soviets to acquiring the bom b. The common threat to world communism led to Soviets helping the new communist state of China in 1949 with nuclear technology which helped China to conduct a nuclear test in 1964. The Soviets, however, had refused to give nuclear weapon design to China, which became the cause of Sino-Soviet rift. The Indian defeat in 1962 and Pakistans collusion with the Chines led the Indians to develop the nuclear capability by 1974. The Indian explosion coupled with successive defeats in wars with India led the Pakistanis onto the bomb. The cases of other third world countries acquiring the bomb in similar; e. g. the Iraqi and Iranian nuclear programmes. The South African case too is due to perceived survival threats. The other nuclear capable states are Argentina and Brazil-two major States in, Latin America. 9. 5. 4 General Complexion of Arms Race in South Asia Overall one can say that the third world nuclear arms race is definitely a product of the nuclear arms race in the first world and the many conflicts within the Third World sustain it. The cold war military alliance system helped this process. Now, after the collapse of s oviet Union and the massive reduction prior to it and after it in Western nuclear arsenals, nuclear peace has been brought to the world in the sense that we arent always living on the edge of a nuclear holocaust. However, the non-resolution of conflicts in the Third World, e. g. Indo-Pak conflicts, Arab-Israeli conflict is a definite reason for the continuance of nuclear arms race in the Third World. Check Your Progress 7 Note : i) F t Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the w it. ) What are the factor propelling the arms race in South Asia? 2 ) Briefly comment on Indias stand on the nuclear proliferation issue. 9. 6 LET US SUM UP We can conclude this unit by recalling a few pertinent points. Thus: i) The discovery of the. power of the atom in both its creative and destructive senses was possibly the greatest event in 20th century history. The creation and blasting of the nuclear bomb by the US demonstrated its power with telling effect. ii) The ideological conflict between capitalist West and socialist East was the single biggest factor instigating the nuclear arm race until the collapse of one side i. e. , of the USSR in 1991. iii) However, despite the demise of Socialist Soviet Union nuclear weapons still remain the basis for military power and their quest continues by many third world countries e. g. India, Pakistan, South Africa, Israel, Iran, Iraq and North Korea. iv) The nuclear threat to humanity remains even today and there is very little hope of complete disarmament. The only possible way is probably to reduce the number of warheads and number of nations acquiring this technology for settling their disputes. KEY WORDS ABM-Anti-Ballistic Missile System : It is a weapon system designed to defend against a ballistic attack by intercepting and destroying ballistic missiles and their warheads in flight. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period BMD-Ballistic Missile Defense : Systems capable of intercepting and destroying nuclear weapons in flight for defense against a ballistic Missile attack. CFE T naty : The h a t y o n Conventional Armed Forces in Europe : Negotiated in the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), a process which began in 1973 and was signed in 1990 by NATO and WTO countries and came into force on 9 November, 1992. NATO-North Atlantic h a t y Organisation : Created by the US and its allies in Western Europe after the Second World War to counter USSR. WTO-Warsaw %sty Organisation: Created by Soviet Union in 1955 to counter NATO military alliance. Dissolved in 199 1. ICBM-Inter Continental Ballistic Missile: Ground launched Ballistic Missile capable fo delivering a warhead to a target at ranges in excess of 5500 km. INF-Intermediate Range Nuclear forces: are nuclear forces with a range oflfrom 1000 km. upto and including 5500 kms. MIRV-Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles: Re-entry vehicles, carried by a nuclear ballistic missile, which can be directed to separate targets along separte trajectories (as distinct from MRVs). A missile can carry two or more RVs. MRV-Multiple Re-entry Vehicles: Re-entry vehicle, carried by a nuclear missile, directed to the same target as the missiles other RVs. MAD-Mutual Assured Destruction: Concept of reciprocal deterrence which rests on the ability of the nuclear weapon powers to inflict intolerable damage on one another after receiving a nuclear attack. Open Skies h a t y A Treaty signed by 25 CSCE states in 1992, permitting flights by unarmed military or civilian surveillance aircraft over the territory of the signatory states, in the area from Vancouver to Vladivostock. SLBMSubmarine Launched Ballistic Missile: A ballistic Missile launched from a submarine, usually with a range in excess of 5500 kms. START I TREATY : Strategic Arms Reduction lkeaty : Between USA and USSR to reduce strategic nuclear weapons. Strategic Nuclear Weapons : ICBMs, SLBMs and bomber aircraft carrying nuclear weapons of inter-continental range of usually over 5500 kms. Doctriae of Deterrence : It theorically means that the most appropriate way to prevent your enemy employ atomic weapons against you is to put a counter threat by also possessing the atomic bomb. Doctrine of Massive Retaliation: Was a strategy of employing nuclear weapons and outlined by US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles after President Eisenhower took over from President Truman in 1954. The massive retaliation doctrine was founded on responding to any communist inspired aggression, however marginal the confrontation, by means of a massive nuclear strike against major centres in the Soviet Union and China. Doctrine of Limited War : Was propounded by Captain Basil Liddel Hart in the late 1940s. He argued in his book the Revolution in Warfare in 1946 that When both sides possess atomic power total warfare makes nonsense Any unlimited war waged with atomic power would be worse than non-sense, it would be mutually suicidal. He argued that war should, therefore, be a controlled affair and without barbarous excess. However, many US strategies criticized his concept of limited war as practically impossible. Doctrine of Flexible Response : Adapted by NATO in 1967 and based on a flexible and balanced range of appropriate responses, conventional and nuclear, to all levels of aggression or threats. These responses, subject to appropriate political control, are Arms Race and Nuclear Threat designed first to deter aggression and thus preserve peace; but, should aggression unhappily occur, to maintain the security of NATO area within the concept of forward defense. 9. 8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS Lawrence Freedman: The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy. P:M. S. Blackett: Atomic Weapons and East West Relations. Hedly Bull : The Control of the Arms Race. Morton Halperin : Limited War in the Nuclear Age. Freed Ikle : Can Nuclear Deterrence last out the country? Robert Jervis : Perceptions and Misperceptions i n International Politics. Herman Kahn : O n Escalation : Metaphors and Scenarios. Henry Kissinger : Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy. Thomas Shelling : Arms and Influence. 9. 9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES Check Your Progress 1 1) See Section 9. 2 2) See Section 9. 2 and sub-section 9. 2. 3 Check Your Progress 2 1) S eeSection9. 3 Check Your Progress 3 1) See Section 9. 4 and sub-sections 9. 4. 1 to 9. 4. 4 2) See Section 9. 4 and sub-section 9. 4. 3 Check Your Progress 4 1) See sub-sections 9. 4. 5 and 9. 4. 6 2) See sub-section 9. 4. 6 Check Your Progress 5 1) See sub-section 9. 4. 7 Check Your Progress 6 1) See sub-section 9. 4. 8 Check Your Progress 7 1) See Section 9. 5 2) See Section 9. 5 and sub-section 9. 5. 2

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